1. Geographical Location

Attaleia was built on a strategic location between the Mediterranean Sea and the Taurus Mountains. Its port soon became one of the most important in the whole eastern Mediterranean. Through the descriptions of ancient authors, particularly of the Hellenistic period, it is possible to reconstruct the historical territory of Attaleia.

2. History of Attaleia: Development and Politics through the centuries

The area in the SW part of Turkey was probably first inhabited some 50,000 years ago, as it has been confirmed by few archaeological surveys and excavations. In fact the remains at Cave Karain, 27 km NW from Antalya, date back to the Paleolithic and the Mesolithic periods and have been significant for the reconstruction of the early history of the site.¹

During the Bronze Age the area of Antalya came under the influence of the Hittites. According to Hittite documents, the territory of Antalya was part of the so-called “lukka” lands, which could much probably be the historical region of Lycia.

The end of Hittite influence in this area coincided with the invasion of the Phrygians.² The land of Antalya formed part of Lydian possessions from the 7^th century B.C. until the battle of Sardis in 546 B.C., when the Persians overcame the area. Alexander the Great put an end to the sovereignty of the Persians in south Asia Minor around 334 B.C.³ After Alexander’s death in 323 B.C. and the subsequent division of his empire among his generals, Pamphylia was among the lands which passed under the control of Antigonus.⁴

The successors of Alexander carried on their controversies until 188 B.C., when Antiochus III signed the peace treaty of Apamea with the Romans. From the conditions of the peace treaty profited greatly the kings of Pergamon, which had risen as the rival force in Asia Minor.⁵ Thus, a few decades later king Attalus II of Pergamon built in southwest Asia Minor the city to which he gave his name and which today is known as Antalya.⁶ The city was aimed to become a major port for the kingdom of Pergamon, and this was the base of its prosperity. It was soon adorned with extraordinary public buildings and acquired a rich cultural life.

In 133 B.C. King Attalus III of Pergamon bequeathed his entire kingdom to the Romans. In this early Roman period for the area, the city and its surroundings suffered greatly from the pirates, who, based at the coasts of Cilicia, raided the shores of the eastern Mediterranean in general and of Asia Minor in particular. In 43 A.D. the Emperor Claudius formed the province of Lycia-Pamphylia. This marked the beginning of a new prosperity period for Attaleia, which reached its peak in the late 2^nd and early 3^rd centuries. Although Attaleia was visited by the Apostle Paul,⁷ who briefly preached there, it was during the 2nd century A.D. that Christianity actually began to spread in the region.

During the Early Byzantine period, particularly throughout the 5^th and 6^th centuries, Attaleia experienced another phase of development. In those centuries it was a significant trade center and it grew even beyond the city walls. In the 7th century A.D. the threat of Muslim Arabs began to make itself felt. A new era of sea raids and insecurity started. Attaleia and its region came under a brief Arab occupation under the Admiral Karinoglu Fazl in 860 A.D., but it was soon recaptured by the Byzantines. The region came under Muslim sovereignty in the year 1085, with the advent of the Seljuk Suleyman Shah. While in 1103 Attaleia was captured by the Byzantine Emperor Alexius Komnenos, it again fell to the Turks shortly thereafter. This change of “hands” occurred six times. From 1120 to 1206 the city was again part of Byzantium. In 1206 Attaleia fell to the sultan Gyaseddin Keyhusrev I. From 1220 onwards the city was divided into two sectors, a Christian and a Muslim one. The Christian side traded with other two fundamental seafaring cities: Genoa and Venice. When the Seljuk dynasty became unable to withstand the pressure exerted by the Ilhanlis, the era of independent "Beyliks" (emirates) began. During this period, the city remained an independent emirate for 95 years. From 1308 to 1426 the Teke Beyleri of the Hamidoğulları exercised sovereignty over the region and then the city became part of the Ottoman Empire.

3. Archaeology of Attaleia and its region

The historical events experienced by the city were numerous and they were responsible for many changes throughout the centuries. As a consequence, some of the ancient buildings, particularly those of the Roman period, were covered by later structures. In it also noteworthy that in Attaleia it is possible to observe the transition from the Christian to the Muslim culture, as some of the churches were turned into mosques (see below).

An important step for the preservation of the archaeological material of the area was the creation of a museum, in order to gather and rescue significant finds. The archaeological museum of Antalya, restored in 1985, keeps on display the most important collection of findings from the region dating from the Paleolithic period down to the 13th century A.D.

3.1. Hellenistic and Roman remains in the city

The most important archaeological evidence still visible within the city consists of Late Hellenistic and particularly of Roman remains. Among them, most prominent are the Roman walls and Hadrian’s Gate, built at the time of the emperor’s visit to the city in 130 A.D. Those structures are nowadays completely surrounded by modern buildings, unfortunately in a state of deterioration. The Gate is the only standing and still used city gate in Asia Minor. It has three arched passageways divided by pillars and columns in antis.⁸ The columns are made of white marble, whereas their bases are made of granite. The interior surface of the arches’ ceiling is coffered. On top of the gate there stood, probably, statues of Hadrian and members of his family. On both sides of the Gate stand tall and sturdy towers, which have been restored several times throughout the city’s long history. Their initial phase was Roman, as attested by an inscription set up on the wall of the northern tower, whereas the southern one clearly bears a restoration phase of Sultan Alaeddin Keykubat I (1219-1238), as attested by another inscription. The Gate marks today the entrance to the Old City of Antalya, called Kaleiçi. The Turkish name means “inside the castle” and rightly so, since the old city is surrounded by walls, the early phase of which dates back to the Late Hellenistic-Early Roman period. Part of these fortifications was also a lighthouse, probably built in the 2^nd century A.D., and known today as the "Tower of Hidirlik". The Tower forms the landmark of the modern touristy part of the city.

3.2. Archaeological remains of the broader region

Attaleia was a major port connecting, economically at least, a number of towns and cities, who sought an outlet for their products. Among these cities were Perge, Aspendos and Termessus.⁹ When the museum of Antalya was set up, archaeological findings from this broader region found their position in its showcases –those, at least, who did not suffer from smuggling and illegal trafficking.¹⁰

A good overview of the prehistory and history of the region is to be seen at the museum of Antalya. In the Prehistory Hall are displayed important findings from Palaeolithic sites, particularly those at Karain and Semahöyük. The latter site as well as Hacilar have yielded archaeological material of the Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Ages displayed in the Proto-History Hall. Pottery, clay figurines and statues dating from the Late Bronze Age to the Late Hellenistic period are hosted in the Classical and Statue Halls and attest to the historical phases of the area before the foundation of the city of Attaleia. The daily life of the Roman period is represented in the so-called Hall of Small objects, where tableware items, lamps and other artefacts are mainly displayed. The grandeur and prosperity which the area experienced during the Roman period is reflected in the statues of Emperors and members of the imperial families, displayed in the relevant room. Most of the findings were found during excavations at Perge. Among them counts a lifesize statue of the Emperor Hadrian as well as those of Septimius Severus and Julia Domna. Another room is reserved for the sarcophagi, discovered mostly accidentally all over Pamphylia, such as some wonderful Sidamara sarcophagi with rich sculpted decoration as well as a sarcophagus depicting the twelve labours of Heracles. The antiquities’ department is completed with a coin room, where coins from all historical periods are displayed.¹¹

3.3. Medieval and Ottoman remains

The city naturally has monuments spanning all the periods of its long history. The mosque of Alaettin is one of the oldest ones, since it dates back to the 7^th century, and it was built over the ruins of a Byzantine church. Similarly, the so-called Kesik Minaret, was at the beginning the a basilica, dating to the 6^th century A.D. Unfortunately today is at a bad state of preservation.¹² Another interesting Muslim monument is the Yivli Minaret complex, a 14^th-century minaret which dominated a structure comprising of a mosque, a religious school and a mevlevihane, also built probably over a Byzantine church.

4. Cults at Attaleia

Information on the gods and deities worshipped at Hellenistic and Roman Attaleia is deduced mainly from artefacts and coins. Thus, in the Antalya archaeological museum are displayed marble statues and figurines. The most common among them are Zeus, Aphrodite, Athena, Nemesis, Hermes, Apollo, Hercules and the Dioskuri. Heads of Attis and a statue of Priapus attest to a fertility-based religious atmosphere as well, whereas Egyptian deities, such as Serapis, Isis and Harpocrates have also their share. Several of these objects, however, were not discovered in the city itself, but, in the broader region and as far as Perge.